The chemistry of cosmetics - Curious

Cosmetics are not a modern invention. Humans have used various substances to alter their appearance or accentuate their features for at least 10,000 years, and possibly a lot longer.  

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Women in Ancient Egypt used kohl, a substance containing powdered galena (lead sulphide&#;PbS) to darken their eyelids, and Cleopatra is said to have bathed in milk to whiten and soften her skin. By B.C men and women in China had begun to stain their fingernails with colours according to their social class, while Greek women used poisonous lead carbonate (PbCO3) to achieve a pale complexion. Clays were ground into pastes for cosmetic use in traditional African societies and indigenous Australians still use a wide range of crushed rocks and minerals to create body paint for ceremonies and initiations.

Today, cosmetics are big business. According to the Household Expenditure Survey, conducted every five years by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australians spend around $4.5 billion on toiletries and cosmetic products every year. Cosmetic advertising, previously directed mainly at women, is now targeting a wider audience than ever.

Cosmetic chemicals interactive

Select the beauty products you use below and find out how many chemicals they contain!

Aftershave Gel Eyeshadow Lipstick Foundation Deodorant Moisturiser Nail polish Shampoo Perfume Sunscreen Blush Mascara Toner Shavecream Cologne Powder Bodywash Hairspray Cleanser Eye liner

Total products: 0

Total chemicals: 0

What is a cosmetic?

In Australia, a cosmetic is defined under the Industrial Chemical (Notification and Assessment) Act as &#;a substance or preparation intended for placement in contact with any external part of the human body' (this includes the mouth and teeth). We use cosmetics to cleanse, perfume, protect and change the appearance of our bodies or to alter its odours. In contrast, products that claim to &#;modify a bodily process or prevent, diagnose, cure or alleviate any disease, ailment or defect&#; are called therapeutics. This distinction means that shampoos and deodorants are placed in the cosmetics category, whilst anti-dandruff shampoos and antiperspirants are considered to be therapeutics.

Regulation and safety

In Australia, the importation, manufacture and use of chemicals&#;including those used in cosmetics&#;are regulated by the Australian Government&#;s National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS). NICNAS works to ensure that chemicals used in consumer products do not cause significant harm to users or to the environment.

In the case of cosmetics, every ingredient contained within the product must be scientifically assessed and approved by NICNAS before being manufactured or imported into Australia and before they can be used in consumer products. Where appropriate, NICNAS sets limits on the level at which a chemical can be used in a product and also conducts reviews on chemicals when new evidence arises.

Cosmetic products that make an additional therapeutic claim (such as moisturisers that also lighten the skin) are regulated by a different organisation&#;the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA).

Cosmetics and other personal care items must also be labelled in accordance with the Trade Practices (Consumer Product Information Standards, Cosmetics) Regulations . This regulation requires that all intentionally added ingredients are listed on the product label, and is enforced by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC).

• Ingredient labelling

  Like the food industry, the cosmetics industry is subject to mandatory labelling requirements by Australian government regulations. Product ingredients must be listed on the packaging, on the product itself, or shown in some other way that allows the consumer to be informed. As with food labels, ingredients are listed in descending order by mass or volume. The purpose of this mandatory labelling is to allow consumers to identify ingredients they might be allergic to, and to compare the ingredients in products claiming to have similar benefits.

  Products are classified as therapeutic goods rather than cosmetics when they claim to treat an ailment or modify a bodily process. Therapeutic goods are subject to different labelling requirements. Unlike cosmetics, they are required to show only their active ingredients and any ingredients known to have the potential to cause adverse affects in some people. Antiperspirants and anti-dandruff shampoos fall into this category. Cosmetic products are not required to demonstrate their effects scientifically in the same way that therapeutic products are. Their claimed effects are usually couched in cautious language such as &#;may reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles&#;. So consumers should be aware that many of the claims made for cosmetic products have not been scientifically proven to be true.

Makeup, shampoo, sunscreen and more&#;there are plenty of cosmetic products that we regularly use. Image source: Rachel / Flickr.

What do cosmetics contain?

There are thousands of different cosmetic products on the market, all with differing combinations of ingredients. In the United States alone there are approximately 12,500 unique chemical ingredients approved for use in the manufacture of personal care products.

A typical product will contain anything from 15&#;50 ingredients. Considering the average woman uses between 9 and 15 personal care products per day, researchers have estimated that, when combined with the addition of perfumes, women place around 515 individual chemicals on their skin each day through cosmetic use.

But what exactly are we putting on our skin? What do those long names on the ingredient list mean and what do they do? While the formula of each product differs slightly, most cosmetics contain a combination of at least some of the following core ingredients: water, emulsifier, preservative, thickener, emollient, colour, fragrance and pH stabilisers.

Water

If your product comes in a bottle, chances are the first ingredient on the list is going to be water. That&#;s right, good old H2O. Water forms the basis of almost every type of cosmetic product, including creams, lotions, makeup, deodorants, shampoos and conditioners. Water plays an important part in the process, often acting as a solvent to dissolve other ingredients and forming emulsions for consistency. 

Water used in the formulation of cosmetics is not your everyday, regular tap water. It must be &#;ultra-pure&#;&#;that is, free from microbes, toxins and other pollutants. For this reason your label may refer to it as distilled water, purified water or just aqua.

Emulsifiers

The term emulsifiers refers to any ingredient that helps to keep unlike substances (such as oil and water) from separating. Many cosmetic products are based on emulsions&#;small droplets of oil dispersed in water or small droplets of water dispersed in oil. Since oil and water don't mix no matter how much you shake, blend or stir, emulsifiers are added to change the surface tension between the water and the oil, producing a homogeneous and well-mixed product with an even texture. Examples of emulsifiers used in cosmetics include polysorbates, laureth-4, and potassium cetyl sulfate.

Emulsifiers are used in creams and lotions to give them an even texture. Image source: Isabelle / Flickr.

Preservatives

Preservatives are important ingredients. They are added to cosmetics to extend their shelf life and prevent the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, which can spoil the product and possibly harm the user. Since most microbes live in water, the preservatives used need to be water-soluble, and this helps to determine which ones are used. Preservatives used in cosmetics can be natural or synthetic (man-made), and perform differently depending on the formulation of the product. Some will require low levels of around 0.01%, while other will require levels as high as 5%.

Some of the more popular preservatives include parabens, benzyl alcohol, salicylic acid, formaldehyde and tetrasodium EDTA  (ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid).

Consumers who purchase &#;preservative-free&#; products should be aware of their shorter shelf life and be conscious of any changes to the look, feel or odour of the product that may indicate it has gone off.  

Thickeners

Thickening agents work to give products an appealing consistency. They can come from four different chemical families:

Lipid thickeners are usually solid at room temperature but can be liquefied and added to cosmetic emulsions. They work by imparting their natural thickness to the formula. Examples include cetyl alcohol, stearic acid and carnauba wax.

Naturally derived thickeners come, as the name suggests, from nature. They are polymers that absorb water, causing them to swell up and increase the viscosity of a product. Examples include hydroxyethyl cellulose, guar gum, xanthan gum and gelatin. Cosmetics with a consistency that is too thick can be diluted with solvents such as water or alcohol.

Mineral thickeners are also natural, and as with the naturally derived thickeners mentioned above, they absorb water and oils to increase viscosity, but give a different result to the final emulsion than the gums. Popular mineral thickeners include magnesium aluminium silicate, silica and bentonite.

The final group are the synthetic thickeners. They are often used in lotion and cream products. The most common synthetic thickener is carbomer, an acrylic acid polymer that is water-swellable and can be used to form clear gels. Other examples include cetyl palmitate, and ammonium acryloyldimethyltaurate.

Emollient

Emollients soften the skin by preventing water loss. They are used in a wide range of lipsticks, lotions and cosmetics. A number of different natural and synthetic chemicals work as emollients, including beeswax, olive oil, coconut oil and lanolin, as well as petrolatum (petroleum jelly), mineral oil, glycerine, zinc oxide, butyl stearate and diglycol laurate.

Emollients help to prevent water loss. Beeswax can be used as an emollient, as can many other natural and artificial chemicals. Image source: Kit / Flickr.

Colouring agents/pigments

Ruby lips, smoky eyes and rosy cheeks; it is the purpose of many cosmetics to accentuate or alter a person&#;s natural colouring. A huge range of substances are used to provide the rainbow of appealing colours you find in the makeup stand. Mineral ingredients can include iron oxide, mica flakes, manganese, chromium oxide and coal tar. Natural colours can come from plants, such as beet powder, or from animals, like the cochineal insect. The latter is often used in red lipsticks and referred to on your ingredient list as carmine, cochineal extract or natural red 4.

Pigments can be split into two main categories: organic, which are carbon-based molecules (i.e. organic in the chemistry context, not to be confused with the use of the word to promote &#;natural&#; or &#;non-synthetic&#; or &#;chemical-free&#; products) and inorganic which are generally metal oxides (metal + oxygen and often some other elements too). Inorganic should not be confused with &#;synthetic&#; or &#;unnatural&#; as most of the inorganic metal oxide pigments do occur naturally as mineral compounds.

The two most common organic pigments are lakes and toners.  The lake pigments are made by combining a dye colour with an insoluble substance like alumina hydrate. This causes the dye to become insoluble in water, making it suitable for cosmetics where water-resistant or waterproof properties are desired.

A toner pigment is an organic pigment that has not been combined with any other substance.

The inorganic metal oxide pigments are usually duller than the organic pigments, but are more resistant to heat and light, providing a longer-lasting colour.

For more Cosmetic Emollient Ingredients Manufacturerinformation, please contact us. We will provide professional answers.

Additional reading:
Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) - Structure, Properties, ...

• Pigments and their sources

  Iron oxide (FeO&#;) gives colours in yellows, reds and black. Blending different types of iron oxide can give a range of browns and natural skin colours.

  Chromium oxide provides green pigments. It can be safely used in cosmetics that are applied externally, but is not permitted for use in lip products, where there is the potential for it to be ingested. 

  Ultramarine, Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4 , is naturally derived from the mineral lapis lazuli and gives blue colours. It is an oxide of sodium, aluminium and silicon, and also contains sulphur which is what provides the vivid blue tone. Changes in the valence state of the sulphur cause pink or purple shades of the pigment. It is also not permitted for use in lip products.

  Ammonium manganese (III) pyrophosphate H4NMnO7P2 is an oxide of manganese which provides a deep purple colour.

  Iron blue, or Prussian blue is made by oxidising salts of iron cyanide (C18Fe7N18) and was one of the first synthetically-produced pigments. It gives a deep blue colour and was originally developed as an alternative to the more expensive lapis lazuli ultramarine. It is not permitted for use in lip products.

  Titanium oxide (TiO2) There are two forms of this compound used in cosmetics, anatase and rutile. These have the same chemical formula but a slightly different crystal structure. They are both used to provide a white pigment. The structure of rutile means that it has a higher refractive index which means that it gives a particularly pearly shine.

  Zinc oxide (ZnO) is also used to create white pigments. Additionally, zinc oxide is used to provide sun protection as it reflects and scatters UV radiation.

Colouring agents and pigments give cosmetics their colours. Image source: Melanie Levi / Flickr.

Glimmer and shine

Shimmering effects can be created via a range of materials. Some of the most common ones are mica and bismuth oxychloride.

Cosmetic mica typically comes from muscovite (KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2) also known as white mica. It naturally forms in flaky sheets and these are crushed up into fine powders. The tiny particles in the powders refract (bend) light, which creates the shimmering effect common in many cosmetics. Mica coated with titanium dioxide gives a whitish appearance when looked at straight on, but then produces a range of iridescent colours when viewed from an angle.

Bismuth oxychloride (BiClO) is used to create a silver grey pearly effect. This compound occurs naturally in the rare mineral bismoclite, but is usually produced synthetically and so is also known as synthetic pearl.

The size of the particles used to create pearly and shimmering looks affect the degree of glimmer the product has. The smaller the particle size (15&#;60 microns, where one micron is one millionth of a meter), the less lustrous the powder will be, and more coverage it gives. Larger particle sizes, up to 500 microns, give a more glittery lustre and are more transparent.

Fragrances

No matter how effective a cosmetic may be, no one will want to use it if it smells unpleasant. Consumer research indicates that smell is one of the key factors in a consumer&#;s decision to purchase and/or use a product.

Chemicals, both natural and synthetic, are added to cosmetics to provide an appealing fragrance. Even &#;unscented&#; products may contain masking fragrances to mask the smell of other chemicals.

The term &#;fragrance&#; is often a generic term used by manufacturers. A single listing of fragrance on your product&#;s ingredient list could represent dozens or even hundreds of unlisted chemical compounds which were used to create the final individual fragrance. 

Manufacturers do not have to list these individual ingredients as fragrance is considered to be a trade secret .

There are over 3,000 chemicals used to formulate the huge range of fragrances used in consumer products worldwide. A comprehensive list has been published by the fragrance industry. All the ingredients on this list have passed the International Fragrance Association (IFRA) safety standards for use in commercial products. However, without knowing which individual ingredients went in to making up the fragrance of a product, consumers can find it difficult to make informed choices. If consumers are concerned they should look for fragrance free products and buy from companies that label their products more comprehensively.

Fragrances aren't just used in perfumes. They're also in creams, lotions and even in food, to give an appealing smell. Image source: Kevin Jaako / Flickr.

Conclusion

While the current scientific thinking on many of these chemicals is that they are safe to use, it is up to each consumer to make their own decision as to whether they purchase and use a product containing certain ingredients or not. Consumers should also try to purchase reputable brands from established sellers&#;cheap imports or copies bought online may not have been through the proper testing and assessment process and may not contain what they claim to.

In our pursuit of beauty, it is wise to remember that cosmetics can be complex combinations of chemicals. Achieving even a basic understanding of the long chemical names on a product ingredient list&#;what they are and what they do&#;can go a long way to helping consumers make informed decisions about the products they choose to use&#;certainly helpful when putting on your best face.

• Common cosmetics and their ingredients

  Lipsticks

  Lipsticks are generally made by combining a water-insoluble dye with wax and a non-volatile oil. The wax provides a stable base for the lipstick and the oil alters the texture and makes it easy to apply, while providing a shiny finish. Common waxes include beeswax, carnauba wax and candelilla wax, while popular oils include castor, olive and mineral oils, cocoa butter, lanolin, and petrolatum. Lip glosses, with their higher shine, contain more oils and less wax.

  This results in a substance that is stiff, but will spread easily on your lips. Because it&#;s water-insoluble, the lipstick won&#;t be dissolved by your saliva or by the drink you&#;re sipping.

  Mascara

  Mascara is one of the most popular cosmetic products on the market. The main ingredients of mascara are pigment, such as carbon or iron oxide to create the colour, polymer to create a film that coats the lashes, preservatives to extend the life of the product, and a thickening agent such as wax or oil.

  Mascara can come in a water-free formula, which makes it waterproof and smudge proof, but more difficult to remove. Oil-water emulsion formulas are also used, which can smudge and run more readily, but are easier to wash off.

  Eye shadow

  The basic ingredient of eye shadow is base filler or diluent, like mica, talc or sometimes kaolin clay. To make the eye shadow stick to your skin, binders such as magnesium or zinc compounds are added. Silica, nylon, dimethicone, boron nitride or bismuth oxychloride can be included to make the eye shadow easier to apply to the eyelids. Preservatives, such as glycol or tocopherol are also added. Then, of course, there is the pigment &#; eye shadow comes in a huge variety of colours.

  Foundation

  Foundation can come as a loose powder, pressed powder or liquid.  Whichever type you use it will generally contain a moisturiser, a colourant and a filler, which dilutes the pigment and also is supposed to fill in any fine lines or wrinkles. Various chemicals such as iron oxide, and titanium dioxide are used as pigments. 

  Talc, a soft mineral made from magnesium, silicon and oxygen, is a commonly used filler.  Bismuth oxychloride is another common ingredient in foundation, used for the shimmering glow it gives to the wearer. Along with talc, it&#;s often found in &#;mineral makeups&#; which are generally marketed as &#;natural&#; and more suitable for sensitive skin, but bismuth oxychloride is not actually a naturally occurring form of bismuth. It&#;s a by-product of the lead smelting process, and has been found to be a skin irritant for some people. Talc can also cause skin irritation, and there has been some concern that it is also a carcinogen. This is however, regarded as a myth albeit one with a foundation (pardon the pun) in truth; prior to the regulation of talcum powder in , talc could contain asbestos which might have contributed to an increased cancer risk.

  Some doctors advise checking to see if diazolidinyl urea or imidazolidinyl urea has been used as a preservative in foundations, as this can give off formaldehyde, which can irritate the skin of some people.

  Blush

  The typical Western ideal of beauty includes glowing, rosy cheeks. In the Victorian era (the mid and late s) make-up was frowned upon and so women resorted to biting their lips and pinching their cheeks to get a bit of colour.

  These days, rouge, or blush is commonplace, and can come in many different forms&#;powder, gel, cream or liquid. A typical blush will contain a filler such as talc or stearic acid, and of course different pigments to provide the rosy complexion. Other concealing pigments can also be added to the mix to block the natural skin colour so the blush will appear stronger. These additives can include mica, zinc oxide or titanium oxide.

  Fake tans

  Fake tans change colour on contact with skin. The active ingredient in most fake tans is dihydroxyacetone, a colourless compound that darkens when it reacts with the amino acids in the top layer of skin. The colour change is permanent, but because skin cells are constantly being shed the tan is usually gone after about a week. It is important to note that fake tans do not provide any sun protection, so individuals will still have to apply sun cream.

  Shampoos and soaps

  Shampoos and soaps clean by the use of surfactants (surface active agents). Surfactant molecules have both fat soluble (lipophilic) and water-soluble (hydrophilic) parts. The lipophilic part of the molecule sticks to oil and dirt, and the hydrophilic part allows water to then carry away the otherwise water-insoluble grime. Washing-up detergents work in the same way, although it isn&#;t generally advisable to wash your hair with dishwashing liquid - they are formulated to remove thick grease from plates, not to gently clean your hair.

  Common surfactants come from a class of chemicals called straight-chain alkyl benzene sulphonates. Common types that you may see in your shampoo&#;s ingredient list are ammonium lauryl sulphate or sodium lauryl sulphate. Tetrasodium EDTA is a chemical that is added to strip away metals like calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) found in water which can affect the effectiveness of the surfactants.

  Other chemicals, called cocamides are added to make the foamy lather we expect from our shampoo. Cocamides can also act as emulsifiers. Cocamidopropyl betaine is added to get the thickness of the shampoo right. It is also an anti-static agent, and a humectant, which means it helps the hair to retain moisture.

 

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Video: Is makeup bad for you? (AsapSCIENCE / YouTube). View video details and transcript

The market demand for marine-based cosmetics has shown a tremendous growth rate in the last decade. Marine resources represent a promising source of novel bioactive compounds for new cosmetic ingredient development. However, concern about sustainability also becomes an issue that should be considered in developing cosmetic ingredients. The fisheries industry (e.g., fishing, farming, and processing) generates large amounts of leftovers containing valuable substances, which are potent sources of cosmeceutical ingredients. Several bioactive substances could be extracted from the marine by-product that can be utilized as a potent ingredient to develop cosmetics products. Those bioactive substances (e.g., collagen from fish waste and chitin from crustacean waste) could be utilized as anti-photoaging, anti-wrinkle, skin barrier, and hair care products. From this perspective, this review aims to approach the potential active ingredients derived from marine by-products for cosmetics and discuss the possible activity of those active ingredients in promoting human beauty. In addition, this review also covers the prospect and challenge of using marine by-products toward the emerging concept of sustainable blue cosmetics.

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